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Calculus Lessons

Limits, derivatives, integrals, and their applications.

This calculus course begins with Calculus 1. It opens with a short algebra and trigonometry review, covering functions, inverses, trigonometry, and exponentials and logarithms, the skills calculus uses constantly, then moves into limits: what a limit means, how to find one from a graph and with algebra, one-sided and infinite limits, continuity, the squeeze theorem, the formal epsilon-delta definition, and L'Hôpital's rule. The derivatives chapter then builds the derivative from its limit definition and works through differentiability, the power, product, quotient and chain rules, the derivatives of trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic and inverse trigonometric functions, and implicit and logarithmic differentiation.

Limits come first because every later idea in calculus is defined through them. A derivative is the limit of an average rate of change, and an integral is the limit of a sum, so time spent on limits now makes derivatives and integrals far easier later. Each lesson works examples by hand, shows the graph where a picture helps, and links to practice problems with step-by-step solutions.

Review lessons borrowed from the algebra course are marked with a label, so you can skip the ones you already know. If you are short on time, the lessons on functions, domain and range, and trigonometric functions are the ones most worth revisiting before you start on limits.

1. Calculus 1 · Algebra & Trigonometry Review

↑ Course outline
Algebra lesson

Functions: The One-Output Rule and the Vertical Line Test

What makes a relation a function, why repeated outputs are fine but repeated inputs are not, and how to apply the vertical line test to any graph.

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Algebra lesson

Function Notation: Reading and Using f(x)

What f(x) actually means, how to evaluate a function at a number or an expression, reading values off a graph, and why f(x+1) differs from f(x)+1.

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Algebra lesson

Domain of a Function: Which Inputs Are Allowed

How to find the domain of a function: the three things that restrict it, reading the domain off a graph, and writing the answer in interval notation.

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Algebra lesson

Range of a Function: Which Outputs Are Possible

How to find the range of a function from a graph or a formula, the ranges of the standard shapes, and why range is harder to pin down than domain.

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Algebra lesson

Inverse Functions: Undoing What a Function Does

How to find the inverse of a function by swapping and solving, check it by composition, graph it as a mirror in y = x, and which functions have an inverse.

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Radians and Degrees

How to convert radians to degrees and back, what a radian is, a table of common angles, and why calculus measures angles in radians.

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Trigonometric Functions

The six trig functions from right triangles and the unit circle, exact values at special angles, signs by quadrant, and the graphs of sin, cos and tan.

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Inverse Trigonometric Functions

What arcsin, arccos and arctan are, why their domains are restricted, how to evaluate them exactly, and how to simplify compositions like cos(arcsin x).

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Solving Trigonometric Equations

How to solve trig equations: isolate the trig function, find every angle in one turn, write the general solution, plus quadratic and multiple-angle cases.

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Algebra lesson

Exponential Functions

What an exponential function is, the parts of f(x) = a·bˣ, how to spot one, how to evaluate it, and exponential function examples next to linear ones.

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Algebra lesson

Logarithms

What a logarithm is, how to read log notation, how to convert a logarithm to exponential form and back, and how to evaluate logs by hand.

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Algebra lesson

Solving Exponential Equations

How to solve exponential equations: matching bases, taking the log of both sides, equations with different bases, quadratic-type equations, and worked examples.

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Algebra lesson

Solving Logarithmic Equations

How to solve log equations: convert to exponential form, use the one-to-one property, condense several logs, solve ln equations, and reject extraneous roots.

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2. Calculus 1 · Limits

↑ Course outline

Introduction to Limits

What a limit is in calculus, how to read lim notation, and how to estimate a limit from a graph or a table, with examples and limits that do not exist.

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Finding Limits From a Graph

How to find limits from a graph: trace the curve from each side, compare heights and read f(a) separately, with holes, jumps and vertical asymptotes.

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One-Sided Limits

What one-sided limits are, what the a⁻ and a⁺ notation means, and how to find them for piecewise, absolute value, root, rational and step functions.

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Limit Laws

The limit laws (sum, difference, constant multiple, product, quotient, power and root) with examples, direct substitution, and what to do with 0/0.

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Evaluating Limits

How to evaluate limits algebraically: substitution, factoring, rationalizing with the conjugate, combining fractions and special trig limits, with examples.

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Squeeze Theorem

What the squeeze (sandwich) theorem says, how to use it step by step, the proof that sin x / x → 1, and worked examples with oscillating functions.

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Infinite Limits

How to find infinite limits: spot the nonzero-over-zero form, use sign analysis on each side to choose +∞ or −∞, and locate vertical asymptotes.

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Limits at Infinity

How to find limits at infinity: rules for infinity, dividing by the highest power, comparing degrees, square roots, ∞ − ∞ and horizontal asymptotes.

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Continuity

The definition of continuity in calculus, the three-part test at a point, continuity on an interval, and how to make a piecewise function continuous.

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Types of Discontinuity

The types of discontinuity explained: removable, jump, infinite and oscillating, how to find points of discontinuity, and how to classify each one.

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Intermediate Value Theorem

What the intermediate value theorem says, why it needs continuity, how to prove an equation has a solution, and the bisection method, with examples.

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Epsilon-Delta Definition of a Limit

The epsilon-delta definition of a limit in plain language, with the ε and δ bands pictured, a proof template, and worked proofs for linear and quadratic limits.

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L'Hôpital's Rule

What L'Hôpital's rule says, when it applies (0/0 and ∞/∞), why it works, and how to handle 0·∞, ∞ − ∞ and 1^∞, with worked examples.

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3. Calculus 1 · Derivatives

↑ Course outline

Limit Definition of the Derivative

The limit definition of the derivative explained: the formula, why it works, how to use it step by step, the alternate form, and six worked examples.

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Differentiability

What differentiable means, how to tell if a function is differentiable, why differentiable implies continuous, and the four ways a derivative fails to exist.

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Power Rule for Derivatives

The power rule for derivatives: the formula, how to use it with negative and fractional exponents, the constant and sum rules, why it works, and examples.

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Product Rule for Derivatives

The product rule for derivatives: the formula, why it works, how to use it step by step, three or more factors, and worked examples with answers.

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Quotient Rule for Derivatives

The quotient rule for derivatives: the formula, the low d-high mnemonic, where it comes from, when you don't need it, and worked examples with answers.

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Chain Rule

The chain rule explained: the formula, why rates multiply, the outside-in method, the chain and power rule, three functions, tables, and worked examples.

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Derivatives of Trig Functions

All six trig derivatives in one chart, why the derivative of sin x is cos x, the derivatives of tan, sec, csc and cot, a memory trick, and worked examples.

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Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

The derivative of e^x is e^x and the derivative of ln x is 1/x. Here's why, plus the rules for a^x and log x in any base, the chain-rule versions, and worked examples.

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Derivatives of Inverse Trig Functions

The derivatives of arcsin, arccos, arctan, arccot, arcsec and arccsc in one chart, where each formula comes from, a right-triangle trick for remembering them, and worked examples.

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Implicit Differentiation

How to find dy/dx when y isn't written as a function of x: the one rule that makes implicit differentiation work, the four steps, worked examples on circles and curves, and second derivatives.

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Logarithmic Differentiation

Logarithmic differentiation step by step: take ln of both sides, use the log rules, differentiate, then multiply by y. Worked examples including the derivative of x to the x.

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